Stylistics Analysis - prepositions and adverbs

 

English linguistics

Syntactics Analysis 

prepositions and adverbs 

 Prepositions

 Prepositions do not have typical endings (like most parts of speech); they are invariable morphologically. Prepositions typically come before a noun phrase; they typically connect a noun phrase to other elements in a sentence. They may indicate spatial relations (e.g., on the mat, behind the sofa, throughout Europe). They may also indicate temporal relations (e.g., on Saturday, during August).

Prepositions can be simple, i.e., consisting of only one word or complex, i.e., consisting of more than one word (e.g., by means of).

Prepositions join with noun phrases (NP) to form preposition phrases (PP), (PPs). The NP is called Prepositional Complement or a Prepositional Object.

From the point of view of meaning, prepositions often denote a relationship of some sort between two entities. For example, in a simple sentence like the car is in the garage, the preposition signals a spatial relationship between the car and its location the garage (the Prepositional Complement). This relationship can also be a metaphorical one as in the sentence Many companies are in dire straits under lockdown.

 

 Adverbs

The most characteristic role of adverbs is that of modifying verbs, adjectives, other adverbs or sentences. Shown by the following examples.

 

(14)   The cook carefully prepared the fish dish.

(15)   Their lawyer was extremely diligent in preparing their case.

(16)   The writer described the scene very vividly.

 

In (14), the adverb carefully tells us more about how the preparing was performed, namely in a careful way. In (15) and (16) we are supplied with more specific information about the extent to which the lawyer was diligent, and the writer described the scene vividly. 

The typical adverb ending is the suffix -ly, which can be attached to an adjective to derive an adverb (e.g., distinctly, calmly, quickly). We need to be aware that there are also a number of adjectives that end in -ly (e.g. friendly, lovely, cowardly).

Other adverb endings include: -wards (e.g., southwards), -wise (e.g., clockwise), -ways (e.g., sidewise). Not all adverbs are formed with these suffixes and the typical adverb suffix -ly appears also on some adjectives. In addition, looking at the suffix alone is not a foolproof test for adverbhood.

Some adverbs form their comparative and superlative forms by making use of the suffixes -er and -est, just like some adjectives (e.g., fast-faster-fastest, soon-sooner-soonest, well-better-best). One way of differentiating adverbs and adjectives in syntactic terms is to say that adjectives modify nouns whereas adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs or sentences.

Adverb subclasses

1. Circumstantial adverbs specify a variety of different types of specific information such as time, place, frequency, and manner: now, hourly, yesterday, here, there, locally, often, seldom, carefully, slowly, erratically.
2. Degree adverbs, as the name suggests, specify the degree to which the adjective they modify applies. For example, in the AP very happy the adverb very specifies the extent to which the epithet happy applies.
3. Sentence adverbs have either a linking function or modify whole sentences: however, perhaps, probably. Here are some examples:

 

(17)   Your argument is sound. However, you need to modify your conclusion.

(18)    Perhaps, john will resign.

(19)    Probably, complete lockdown is going to be extended.

 

In (17) the adverb however links the content of the first sentence to that of the second. The content of the second seems to contrast with the content of the first. In (18) the adverb perhaps expresses tentativeness over the following proposition. In (19) the adverb probably indicates that the following proposition is very likely.  In the above sentences, the adverbs have scope over a whole sentence.

The three groups of adverbs also differ syntactically: degree adverbs cannot themselves be modified (e.g., *very extremely, *very extraordinarily, *very too). Circumstantial and sentence adverbs can be modified (e.g., very often, pretty often, quite often, very probably but not *very perhaps. Many AdvPs consist of a Head only, but, just as in the other phrase types, the Head can be modified. Sentence adverbs are syntactically detached from the sentences they modify, unlike circumstantial and degree adverbs. Adverbs function as the Heads of Adverb Phrases (AdvP).